Since the early days of overseas trade, Indian cloth has driven economy in the region. Indian cloth was imported in East Asia since the 1st Century. It was not only highly valued, it was used as alternate currency in cloth-for-spices trade from east to west.

Among all things fabled, cloth produced in India has enamoured people of all generations and geographic locations. In early civilisation, it was traded far and wide to all corners of Asia, to Africa, to Greece, Egypt and Rome — all inhabited lands known. In fact, when Europe had not yet known cotton, dyes, and the art of colourfast dyeing, India had practised spinning, weaving, dyeing, and printing or cloth drawing (called kalamkari) with masterly deftness. This highly prized merchandise brought India its riches and a fame of ‘clothing the world.’

With over 4000 years of tradition in textiles, India ruled trade in the whole of Asia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and other European countries till the 17th Century. The demand for Indian textiles was so high that it drove the world economy at the time. Sources point to a thriving system of international trade that linked the ports of southern India with those of ancient Rome. The chronicles of the Greek Periplus reveal that Indian exports included a variety of spices, aromatics, quality textiles (muslins and cottons), ivory, high quality iron, and gems.

Some of these textiles of yore survived in distant lands owing to the significance attached to them, whether social, ceremonial, ritualistic, decorative, or simply utilitarian. Textiles and Art of the People of India (TAPI) has brought an exhibition of such ancient Indian cloth to New Delhi’s National Museum. On display are very rare exhibits drawn from almost each geographic region. The richness of colours, the technique of pattern making, and the delicacy of designs and weave inspire awe for the extraordinary skills of Indian craftsmen and their adaptability to cater to specific requirements of different markets across the world. Some of the exhibits are of the 13th Century and came from Gujarat, underlining the dominance of Western India in the age-old commerce of the Indian Ocean. The exhibition is on till 15 Jan 2006.

In the major export destinations of East Asia, Indian cloth was used almost as an alternative currency. The trade in the region was dominated by Arab, Indian, and Chinese merchants. They sold cloth in exchange for other valuables. By the 16th Century, trade controls passed into the hands of European trading companies. The Europeans had entered Asia’s maritime commerce with the primary objective of procuring spices of the East. But, continuous demand for Indian cloth in the East, where these fabrics were ascribed magical properties and were very carefully passed from one generation to the next, determined that the European trading companies’ commercial success in the Indian Ocean heavily depended on the barter and sale of Indian cloth. Asian ports thus became a meeting ground for traders from Asia, the Middle East, China, and Europe, all vying for the lucrative cloth-for-spice trade.

Such huge demand for Indian textiles make it apparent that it was patronized by all, while it was the chosen robe of royalty and nobility in East Asia. The silk patola — one of the most expensive and exquisite cloths from India — was patronised by the royalty of Indonesia. Each royal house had its own unique design. The right to wear the patola was widely claimed as a prerogative of the Indonesian nobility, a practice encouraged by the Dutch East India Company who distributed patolas to local rulers as part of the incentives offered to win local trading concessions and cooperation.

To meet the needs of locals who could not afford the expensive patola, cotton imitations were produced for trade to Indonesia. Even though these were created using the simpler technique of block-printing as opposed to the complex double-ikat weaving method of their silk prototypes, they were revered as ceremonial and heirloom textiles.

In Sumatra and Sulewesi, Indian cloth had a deep ceremonial significance as banners and hangings. Set amidst floral backgrounds, an oval-shaped patchwork design display at the exhibition comprises a variety of cloth patterns that attest to the diversity of Indian cloth textiles traded to Indonesia.

Yet other textile exhibits are rare cotton cloth hangings of Hindu themes made with the kalamkari design technique. The stylistic quality of figures, costumes and architectural details point to their southern origin in the Kaveri River area, possibly in the Kumbakonam region of Tanjore. Printed or hand designed banners were made in Sri Lanka as well. But, it was the superior quality of mordant-and-resist dyeing art that made India the favoured destination for cloth buyers.

The prolific trade in Indian textiles included textiles designed exclusively for Thailand. Written records of the 16th Century Portuguese traveller Tome Pires reveal that among the Indian textiles traded eastwards were ‘kling cloths in the fashion of Siam’, kling referring to the Kalinga region, the northern part of the Coromandel Coast. Thailand had a distinct preference for textiles from India; in the Thai Court, the finest Indian textiles assumed an important role as state gifts, and rules regarding their use had to be strictly adhered to.

The Roman conquest of Egypt brought the Mediterranean into direct trade contact with India, and the ports along the Red Sea rose to prominence in the first century AD. This boosted trade with West Africa and Europe, and Rome imported vast quantities of Indian textiles. While the wealthy splurged on fine muslins, cotton cloth was put to varied uses, including the uniforms of Caesar’s soldiers, tents, and awnings.

Such extensive trade between the East and the West brought about a shared vocabulary of textile designs. From ceremonial cloth to wall hangings to furnishings and the clothing for the royalty of the East and the West, the exhibition is replete with fine examples of the ancient Indian art of textiles. Many exhibits indicate a good balance in the design aesthetics of the East and the West.

Though a good portion of Indo-Roman trade was reciprocal (Rome supplying exotic items such as cut-gems, coral, wine, perfumes, papyrus, copper, tin, and lead ingots), the trade balance was considerably weighted in India’s favour. The balance of payments had to be met in precious metals — either gold or silver coinage — or other valuables like red coral (i.e. the hard currency of the ancient world). Indian fine muslins, extolled in early Roman literature as ‘woven air’, were Rome’s major buy from India besides ivory work. However, these items must have been quite expensive since the Roman writer Pliny (23-79 AD) complained of the cost of these and other luxury commodities that were imported from India. He recorded: “Not a year passed in which India did not take fifty million sesterces away from Rome.” This trade surplus gave rise to prosperous urban centres that were linked to an extensive network of internal trade.

After the arrival of the Portuguese on Indian shores in 1498, the popularity of Indian textiles began to grow in the West. At first, the imports to European markets were in small quantities, viewed simply as novelties from the exotic East. Soon their commercial potential was recognized and their market grew many times over. By mid 16th Century, Indian muslins and silks—hand drawn, dyed, printed, or embroidered—had reached all corners of Europe. First, Indian textiles in the West found popularity as furnishing fabrics, but were soon preferred for clothing owing to their superior quality in texture, dyeing, and printing.

The beautiful embroidered quilts of Bengal commissioned by the Portuguese in the 16th Century, possibly produced at the mercantile capital of Satgaon near Calcutta (now Kolkata), were among the earliest textiles to be produced specifically for the western market. This was, perhaps, the first time that the Portuguese introduced a design combining European and Indian motifs. It was, however, the craze for brilliant colourfast Indian cottons that gripped European markets from 1680 right through the 18th Century. Subsequently, Indian textiles travelled to distant shores and found an eager market in America. Gujarat was the source of exquisite embroideries and block prints while the Coromandel Coast of south-east India supplied the renowned painted and dyed cottons. Kashmir shawls were introduced to Europe in the late 18th Century and immediately became a rage. Despite their exorbitant cost, they were in great demand by those who could afford them, and remained in fashion for over a hundred years.

Undoubtedly, Kashmir shawls are one of the most unique textiles from the subcontinent. The delicacy and beauty of their designs, the lightness of their materials, and the skill and imagination of their creators made them prized possessions. Queen Victoria owned a fair number for her personal use and for presenting as gifts. Their price in the early 19th Century varied from 1,700 to 3,000 francs apiece. Empress Josephine possessed about 60 of them. The demand for these shawls far exceeded their supply, which made their weavers alter their production methods to keep up with the orders. Their immense popularity led to the production of their imitations in Europe but without much success.